橘子的新生命
你好，转: 中国使用“China”这个英文名称始于1912年，可是西方人在两千多年前就已经认知这个东亚国家的名称了。据有关专家经过多年的探索和考证，中国的英文名称“China”一词的词源，最早来源于公元前10世纪（有的学者提出是公元前5世纪和公元前15 世纪）的印度史诗《摩诃婆罗多》和《罗摩衍那》中出现的“Cina”一词；在公元前4世纪的古印度乔胝厘耶的《政事论》中，也曾提到过“Cina”；公元前5到4世纪的波斯赞美弗尔瓦丁神的诗中也曾出现过“Cina”；《旧约全书》中也有关于“Sinoa ”的记述。 对于“China”这一名称的来源和词义，在学术界一直是众说纷纭、各执其词，目前所见到的几种说法是：“瓷”、“秦”、“茶”、“丝”、“粳”和“苗语”说。 有学者提出：“China”是汉语“昌南”（原景德镇名）的音译。随着景德镇精细白瓷大量流传到海外，才使得“瓷”（china）成为“中国”的代名词。 《美国遗产大词典》的解释是，“China”一词与公元前三世纪的秦朝有关，“China”是秦国的“秦”的译音，这一观点首先是罗马传教士卫匡国（Martini, Martin）在1655年最早提出来的。 据记载，在公元前五世纪，东方的丝绸已成为希腊上层社会喜爱的衣料，因此，有学者认为“Cina”一词由来于丝绸的“丝”，其依据是希腊史学家克特西亚斯（Ctesias）在他的著作中提到了赛里斯人（Serica），由此认为“赛里斯”是由“Cin a”转变而来。持这一观点的学者是成都理工大学刘兴诗教授和上海东华大学教授周启澄先生。刘兴诗教授曾在论文《CHINA释义新探》中不仅提出， “China”一词源于丝绸，还认为：古时西土各国认定的“Cina”所在正是古蜀国，即今天的成都地区。“丝 国”并非指今日中国的全境。 重庆师范大学黄中模教授对于“Cina”的考证认为，“支那”可能为古苗语。古印度通过南丝绸之路与三苗文化盛行的中国南方关系密切，史诗里的“支那” 也是泛指古中国，这也是三苗文化在异域的表现。他表示，现今流传在苗族中“吉那”、“子腊”不仅与“ 支那”同音，在含意里也有“水田之乡”之意。 文化人类学家、民俗学家林河先生认为，印度梵语中的Cina，指的就是中国南方的粳稻民族，是“粳”的译音。印度东部的阿萨姆邦等地区，住有中国南方的粳稻民族， 种粳稻的民族自称为Cina （粳），因此，阿萨姆邦等地区的粳民也自称为“粳”，印度人就是依照粳民族的语言称他们为Cina（粳）了。 从时间上来看，景德镇的陶瓷出现于东汉，秦朝建立于公元前221年。从专家们提供的资料看，“Cina”一词在印度梵文中的出现的最迟时间也在公元前5世纪，中国茶叶的出口也要晚于这一时期。由此可见，印度梵文中的“Cina”和中国的“茶”、景德镇的“瓷”及中国秦国的“秦”并无关系。 关于赛里斯国的丝绸在西方的许多文献中有许多记载，如在《希腊拉丁作家远东古文献辑录》 （[法]戈岱司编耿?译）一书中，囊括了从公元前四世纪到公元十四世纪期间九十多部希腊文和拉丁文著作中关于塞里斯国的记述。希腊史学家克特西亚斯（Ctesias）在公元前四世纪就提到的赛里斯国（Serica）。专家们认为，由Serica演化出来英语的锡尔克（si lk）、俄语的旭尔克，均来源于中国“丝”字的谐音，是这些国家对丝绸的称呼。但在印度梵文中记录中国的名称是“Cina”，而由此衍生出的英文是 “China”，波斯文是“Chin”，阿拉伯文是“Sina”，拉丁文是“Sinae,” 法文是“Chine”，德文是 “China”，意大利文是“Cina”，俄文的“中国”名称是根据公元九世纪的辽国“契丹”（KITAN ，kitai）的音译得来的。很明显，在许多历史文献的记述里，那个生产丝绸和贩卖丝绸的赛里斯国（Serica）和古印度梵文中的“Cina”，代表的并不是同一个概念，所指的并不是同一个国家或地区，也就是说，“Cina”与“丝”并无关系。 我们可以肯定地说，“Cina”指的是东方的一个国家或者是一个社会集团，但是这个名称在当时所指的具体是哪一个区域、哪一个人类族体、其含义究竟是什么，现有的各种学说都不足以令人信服。我认为，古代中国的商、周版图远没有今天中国的版图这么辽阔，商、周对西方的影响远没有今天的中国对世界的影响这样宏大，在东亚辽阔的土地上除商、周以外，那些被商、周称为“东夷”、“北狄”、“西戎”、“南蛮” （自《礼记曲礼》）的族体则占据着东亚更广袤的土地。因此，我们无论是在探讨“Cina”的来历还是其含 义的时候，不能把视线仅限于商、周的区域。 无论是“苗语”说还是“粳”说，一致的观点是，“Cina”指的是今天中国南方的农耕民族。但是，我们也不能忽视东亚北部的游牧民族，因为东亚北部的游牧民族同样是东亚民族的一个重要组成部分，他们同样存在着拥有“Cina”这一名称的可能性。 一、称呼一个国家或一个社会集团无非是自称或他称，自称必能自圆其说，他称也必会自有其理。“Cina”一词的确切含义，西方人不能解释，今天的汉语也不能作出解释。笔者恰恰在戎狄的语言中找到了“Cina”一词的答案。 戎狄是匈奴的前身。《吕氏春秋审为篇》说：“狄人、猃狁，今日匈奴。”《晋书北狄传》也以为“匈奴之类，总谓之北狄。……夏曰獯鬻，殷曰鬼方，周曰猃狁，汉曰匈奴。” 在《魏书蠕蠕匈奴徒何高车列传》中记述：“高车，盖古赤狄之余种也。初号为狄历，北方以为高车、丁零。其语略与匈奴同而时有小异。”《周书突厥传》云： “突厥，大抵与匈奴同俗。”《隋书铁勒传》云：“其俗大抵与突厥同。”马长寿著《北狄与匈奴》云：“匈奴语言上的通则与蒙古语言上的通则，不相违背。” “匈奴、突厥、铁勒之俗又与蒙古同。突厥语中蒙古语成分的比重相当大。近代学者一致承认柔然使用的语言是蒙古语。柔然的部族皆高车，蒙古又是铁勒中土拉河北的部族。这样，从狄历、丁零、铁勒、高车、柔然、突厥到蒙古，世代相接，世系相衔，是为一脉相联也（ 《蒙古族族源考》苏日巴达拉哈）。“中国北方诸族之裔呈通古斯、蒙古、突厥三大语族并存的局面，是上古语言生态融合而成的较为简单的表象。以匈奴之庞大，其语言和血缘必然混杂；说它是一个多血缘多语言的部落联盟，或许更为恰当。……总的来看，它的人种和语言已经接近后世蒙古民族的形态；又由于通古斯部落是它的统治集团，其核心部落的语言可能更偏向于通古斯语。”（《奴的血缘和出逃路线》--朱学渊）这无疑证明了古代戎狄与匈奴、高车、蒙古之间的语言传承关系。因此，古代的戎狄或他的先人正是操着蒙古语，或大部分操着蒙古语的一个庞大的社会集团，因此， “Cina”一词的含义应该能够在今天的蒙古语中得到相应的解释。在蒙古语中，[ ]的读音可谓与“Cina”非常相象，读做“赤那”，意思为“狼”。 但是西方国家为什么称呼戎狄为“赤那”即“狼”呢？唯一的可能性是，戎狄以狼为图腾、打着狼旗东征西战。这种可能性可以在中国的史书对戎狄的后人们的记述中得到间接的证实。 在《蒙古秘史》的开篇第一章便说：“天命所生的苍色狼与惨白色鹿同渡腾吉思水来到斡难河源的不儿罕山前，产生了巴塔赤罕”。《国语·周语》记载着：“穆天子西狩犬戎，获其五王，得四白狼四白鹿以归”。史学家翦伯赞考证：“白狼白鹿是当时的氏族”（翦伯赞《中国史纲》，三联书店，1950年版）。这是很明显的图腾崇拜，是两个以狼和鹿为图腾的姻族。 《魏书·蠕蠕匈奴徒何高车列传》中记述：“俗云：匈奴单于生二女，姿容甚美，国人皆以为神。单于曰：‘吾有此女，安可配人？将以与天。’乃于国北无人之地筑高台，置二女其上曰：‘请天自迎之。’经三年，其母欲迎之。单于曰：‘不可，未彻之间耳。’复一年，乃有一老狼，昼夜守台嗥呼，因穿台下为空穴，经时不去。其小女曰：‘吾父处我于此，欲以与天，而今狼来，或是神物，无使之然。’将下就之。其姊夫惊曰：‘此是畜生，无乃辱父母？’妹不从，下为狼妻而产子。后遂滋繁成国。故其人好引声长歌，又似狼嗥。” 这是一个典型的族源说的例子。 《魏书·列传第四十九》记载，“突厥之先，平凉杂胡也，姓阿史那氏。后魏太武灭沮渠氏，阿史那以五百家奔茹茹（“茹茹”也称为“柔然”），世居金山，工于铁作。金山状如兜鍪，俗呼兜鍪为‘突厥’，因以为号。或云，其先国于西海之上，为邻国所灭，男女无少长尽杀之。至一?，不忍杀，刖足断臂，弃于大泽中。有一牝狼，每衔肉至其所，此?因食之，得以不死。其后遂与狼交，狼有孕焉。彼邻国者，复令人杀此，而狼在其侧。使者将杀之，其狼若为神所凭，?然至于海东，止于山上。其山在高昌西北，下有洞穴，狼入其中，遇得平壤茂草，地方二百余里。其后狼生十男，其一姓阿史那氏，最贤，遂为君长，故牙门建狼头纛，示不忘本也。”此记载中的“阿史那”就是“赤那”，“狼头纛”就是狼头旗。唐朝的王涯在其诗中就写到：“旌甲从军久，风云识阵难。今朝韩信计，日下斩成安。燕颔多奇相，狼头敢犯边。寄言班定远，正是立功年。”这里的“狼头”指的正是打着狼头徽号战旗的北方游牧民族。 31976希望对你有帮助！
jinshengya0757
ChinaThe People＇s Republic of China is a socialism country with its own characteristics. It is one of the developing countries.China lies in the east of Asia. It has a number of neighboring countries. To the north, northeast and northwest are the Mongolia, Russia and Korea. To the south are Vietnam, Laos, Thailand and the Philippine. To the west and southwest are India, Burma, Bhutan, Nepal and Pakistan. To the east is Japan, which faces China across the East China Sea.China is a country with a vast territory. It has an area of over 9,600,000 square kilometers. It consists of 34 provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities directly under the Central Covernment. Beijing, which is situated in the North China, is its capital.The People＇s Republic of China is one of the largest countries in the world. Now it has a population of more than 1.2 billion, making up a quarter of the world population 中华人民共和国是一个有中国特色的社会主义国家。它是一个发展中国家。中国位于亚洲的东部，有许多邻国。北面和东北面有蒙古，俄罗斯和朝鲜；南面有越南、老挝、泰国和菲律宾；西面和西南面有缅甸、印度、尼泊尔、不丹和巴基斯坦；东面有日本，与中国隔海相望。中国幅员辽阔，有九百六十万平方千米。它有34个省、直辖市和自治区。首都是北京，位于华北。中国是世界上最大的国家之一。现在，它有12多亿人口，占世界人口的四分之一
Emily丫头
楼上的翻译有错误，这是重新翻译后的结果：The PRC is a socialist country with Chinese characteristics. It is a developing country. China is located in the eastern part of Asia, there are many neighbors. There are north and northeast Mongolia, Russia and North Korea; south Vietnam, Laos, Thailand and the Philippines; the west and southwest with Myanmar, India, Nepal, Bhutan and Pakistan; east Japan, and China across the sea. China's vast territory, with 9.6 million square kilometers. It has 34 provinces, municipalities and autonomous regions. Capital is Beijing, located in North China. China is one of the world's largest country. Now, it has more than 12 million people, accounting for a quarter of the world's population.
魅丽无限
China is situated in the southeastern part of the Eurasian continent and is bordered in the east by the Pacific Ocean. It covers an area of 9,560,900 km² and is the third largest country in the world, being surpassed is size only by the Russia and Canada. The country stretches for about 5,500 km from the heilong Jiang river in the north ,near the city of Mohe, to the Zengmu Reef of the Nansha Islands in the South China Sea and for about 5,200 km form the Pamir highlands in the far west to the junction of the rivers Heilong Jiang and Wusuli jiang(Ussuri) in the east.Its land frontier measures 28,000 km and is shared by North Korea in the north, the Russia in the northeast and northwest, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal and Bhutan in the west and southwest, and Burma, Laos and Vietnam in the south. The Chinese coast is more than 18,000 km long and bounded by the Gulf of Bohai, the Yellow Sea, and the East and South China Seas. More than 5,000 islands dot the China coast, the lorgest of which is Taiwan(35,380 km*km ),followed by the island of Hainan(34,380 km*km ).Politically, China is divided into 22 provinces (including Taiwan), five autonomous regions and the three municipalities of Beijing (Peking), Tianjin and Shanghai, which are directly under the central government. Capital: The capital of the People's Republic of China is Beijing(Peking). National flag: The national flag has five yellow, five-pointed stars on the upper felt part on a field of red. The red color of the flag symbolizes revolution. The five yellow stars represent the great unity of the revolutionary peoples under the leadership of the Communist Party of China. National emblem: The national emblem is with the famous gate, Tianan Men, in the center, illuminated by five stars and encircled by stalks of grain and a cogwheel.China's land surface slopes from west to east and can be divided into three zones: The Qinghai-Tibet-Plateau has an average altitude of over 4,000 m. The greatest highland area of the world is located here -- the "Roof of the World"--with an average elevation of over 5,400 m. This zone covers an area of 2,200,000 km*km.The second zone begins east of the kunlun Mountains and has a mean altitude rantging from 1,000--2,000 m. The Tarim Basin, the Mongolian Highlands, the Loess Plateau of the Sichuan Basin and the Yunnan Guizhou Plateau are part of this region. East of this, the third zone begins with hardly any elevations exceeding 500 m. The relief levels off in an eastward direction toward the China Sea. This has traditionally been the agricultural region of the country. Here Chinese culture and civilization developed, and it is today the most densely populated area.The most important rivers flow from west to east, following the topography of the land: the Huanghe, Yellow River, is 4,848 km long and the Changjiang (Yangtze) is 5,983 km in length.China's topography is characterized by harsh contrasts and varied landscapes. The Mt., Qomolangma, Mount Everest,on the China/Nepal border has an elevation of 8,848 m,the highest mountain in the world.The Turfan Depression in the autonomous region of Xinjiang is the lowest point in China --155 m below sea level.Beijing is visited by millions of guests from China and abroad every year. The city offers a bit of everything, no matter what line of interest the tourist chooses to follow. The most important sights are in the quarter around Tianamen Square with more recent buildings to the east ,south and west and the Imperial Palace to the north. Visitors on a short trip should also visit the Summer Palace, YiheYuan. Equally attractive are the temple complexes, as for example the lama temple or the complexes in Xishan, the Western Hills. A must in every program is a trip to the Great Wall.Most visitors to Beijing will get the chance to take a trip to the Great Wall. There are special daily tourist trains to Badaling, 85km north of Beijing. This pass was repaired in 1957. If one should get the chance to go by bus or by car, this is recommended, since one os not bound to a schedule and avoids the crowds which form on the wall after the train's arrival. The tour takes about two hours, no matter what means of transportation is used.Tian'an Men, Gate of Heavenly Peace 天安门On the national coat of arms of the people's Republic of China, the Gate of Heavenly Peace is reepresented as the symbol of the revolutionary new China.This is where Mao Zedong proclaimed the founding of the People's Republic of China on October 1, 1949. Tian'an Men is located north of Tian'anmen Square and leads to the Imperial Palae. It was built as early as 1417 and mentioned as the main gate of the former Imperial Palace,Chengtian Men. The wooden structure burned down in 1457 and was reerected in 1651 and then called Tian' an Men. It is 34 m high, has red stone walls, a wooden roof and five entrances A portrait of Mao Zedong hangs over the main entrance, which in earlier times only the emperor had the right to use; to the left are the signs "Long live the People's Republic of China" and to the right: "Long live the grat union between the peoples of the world." A grandstand for up to 20,000 guests is above those banners.The gate is surrounded by a ring-moat, the Golden Water Spring, which was arranged to guard the Imperial Palace. Five white marble bridges, the Golden Water Bridges, lead to the five passages of the gate. Two stone pillars stand in front of the entire complex, symbols of heavenly peace and the emperor's authority. They show a relief of dragon motifs and stylized clouds. On top sits the mythical beast Kong. Next to each piliar stands an iron lion. The gate, as well as the square in front of it, were not accessible to the public in imperial times. Often religious and military ceremonies were heeld here, imperial decrees and the results of Mandarin tests announced, and death sentences carried out.The Imperial Palace, also called the Forbidden City, is one of the country's most important sights, for it is a symbol of traditional China and likewise the biggest and best preserved masterpiece of classical architecture.The palace covers an area of 720,000 m. It is surrounded by a moat 50 m wide and a wall 10.4 m high with watch towers at each of the corners.The entire palace grounds consist of two complexes, the outer and the inner courtyards. They contain six main halls and many smaller pavilions and buildings. In all, there are more than 9,000 rooms. The main building materials are wood and yellow-glazed tiles.Its history dates back to the 13th century, when the Yuan imperial house established itself in Beijing and had a palace built. The Yongle Empeor of the Ming Dynasty, rejected power, and preferred Beijing. He had the Imperial Palace expanded to its present size; it was complted around 1420.
失踪的第九个梦
China Briefing China is one of the biggest countries in the world. It has an area of about 9.6 million square kilometers which comprises about 6.5 per cent of the world total land area. Its population of more than one billion accounts for 23 per cent of the world's population. China is the world's oldest continuous civilization. World Travel Organization predicts that by year 2020, China will become the number one travel destination in the world. China is situated in the eastern part of Asia on the west coast of the Pacific Ocean. It is the third largest country in the world (after Canada and Russia). The distance from east to west measures over 5,200 kilometers and from north to south, over 5,500 kilometers. When the sun shines brightly over the Wusuli River in the east, the Pamire Plateau in the west is in the very early morning. When blizzards wrap the north along the Heilongjiang River in the winter, spring sowing is underway on Hainan Island in the south.China has a land border of 22,143.34 kilometers long and is bordered by twelve countries: Korea in the east; Russian in the northeast and the northwest; Mongolia in the north; India, Pakistan, Bhutan and Nepal in part of the west and southwest; Burma, Laos and Vietnam in the south.Beside a vast land area, there are also extensive neighboring seas and numerous islands. The coastline extends more than 14,500 kilometers. Across the East China Sea to the east and South China Sea to the southeast are Japan, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia. More than 5,000 islands are scattered over China's vast territorial seas; the largest being Taiwan and the second largest, Hainan. One territorial sea and three neighboring seas altogether constitute 4.73 million square kilometers.
哎唯巴蒂
Buses You buy bus tickets in the vehicle from a conductor. Simply name your destination and hold out the money; the bus company employee will give you the proper ticket. Depending on the route, you'll pay 1 - 2 yuan, or more for longer distances. Buses in large cities are for the most part overfull, and crowding is enormous-keep an eye on your valuables. The driving style of bus drivers is often astounding and reckless. My first bus ride a few years ago in Hangzhou was a formative experience: our driver didn't like to be passed and ran races with another bus. Just when it got really exciting, the police interrupted. There are four classes of travel on trains. Hard seater the cheapest seats, typically just metal with a thin plastic coating. For overnight and long trips you should avoid these; even hardened backpackers should steer clear. Don't offer your seat to an older gentleman or beautiful woman, or you'll bitterly regret it at midnight, as you try in vain to sleep in the aisle or continue standing for the nth hour. If you go to the lavatory, there is no guarantee that your seat will be unoccupied when you get back to it. Soft seateravailable on some routes (e.g. between Shanghai and Hangzhou) day and night. Hard sleepers are fully sufficient for night travel. They are open compartments with six narrow beds, with great opportunities to converse with Chinese travelers. Hard sleepers are often sold out on holidays. Soft sleeper luxury class. Here you'll encounter wealthy Chinese and executives (if, that is, they don't fly instead). Comfortable compartments for two or four people, there is nonetheless not as much space for luggage as in hard sleepers. A soft sleeper costs almost as much as a plane ticket.
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