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7 . 连接关系 7.1 前置词及其宾语的句法规则。 7.1.1 规则十的内容。 规则十 —— 前置词将名词或代词连接到同样的第三个词，依赖于前置词的名词或代词以宾格的形式呈现 。 -------------------------------------------练习44-------------------------------------------- 在下列句子中应用规则十： (解析模型：以第1个句子为例，前置词to将代词him连到动词speaks；按照规则十，him以宾格形式呈现。) 1. To him who in the love of nature bolds Communion with her visible forms, she speaks A various language.— Bryant . 2. The eulogium pronounced on the character of tbc State of South Carolina,by the honorable gentleman, for her Revolutionary and other merits, meets my hearty concurrence.— Daniel Webster. 3. Into the jaws of death, Into the month of bell Rode the Three Hondred.— Tennyson . 4. At midnight, In his guarded tent, The Turk was dreaming of the boor When Greece, her knee in suppliance bent, Should tremble at his power.— Halleck . 5. But now no sound of laughter was beard amongst the foes, A wild and wrathful clamor from all the vanguard rose.— Macaulay . 6. Ron to your houses, fall upon your knees, Pray to the gods to intermit the plague That needs must light on this ingratitude.— Shakespeare . 7. The trees are now in their fullest foliage and brightest verdure; the woods are gay with the clustered flowc1飞of the laurel ; the 11lr Is perfumed by the sweetbrier and the wild rose; the meadows are enameled with clover blossoms; while the young apple, the peach, and the plum begin to swell, and the cherry to glow among the green leaves. — Washington Irving . 7.1.2 应用规则十——违背规则十的情况。 (1) 违背情况一。——当前置词距离代词宾语较远的时候：例如—— Who did you get that book from from? 这个句子例举了通用的俗化的词汇排布；这种类型的句子，宾语距离它们的支配前置词较远，这大大的增加了在格的格式上犯错的可能性。因此，我们有： 注意事项一。——当支配前置词距离它们的代词宾语较远时，必须注意，代词以宾格的形式呈现。 (2) 违背情况二。——当支配前置词有两个或多个代词宾语省略的时候：例如—— I lent the book to some one, I know not who. 在这个句子中，在who之前有前置词to的省略，但是使用who就违背了规则十，应当是“I know not whom，”或者“I know not to whom.” 因此，我们有： 注意事项二。——当发到支配前置词省略的时候，必须注意，代词宾语以宾格形式呈现。 7.1.3 关于前置词及其宾语的特性和习惯用法。 7.1.3.1. between和among。 ——between，从字面意思，就表示与两个有关的。因此，它不能用于超过两个的场合。我们可以说，“Mother divided the apple between sister and me ,”但是不能说“between John , James ， and Martha. ”前置词among或者amongst应用于表示两个以上的分布：例如，“The booty was divided among the forty thieves.” 7.1.3.2. 恰当的前置词。 ——有很多词后面只能跟一个前置词；也有其它的词认可不同的前置词，其互相之间的意义变化很大。必须注意选择合适的前置词用于表示准确的关系(基于这个引用的目的，毫无疑问，应当寻求使用词典)。 7.1.3.3. 宾语的抑制(Suppression of Object)。 ——有时候，前置词的宾语是受抑制的：例如，“We found the man [ that] we were looking for.” 7.1.3.4. but用法。 ——but用在形如“all but him”这样的结构中，经常错误地当成连词使用。but的旧时用法就是一个前置词，其字面意思就是“on the out side of”，因此相当于without或except。像形如“all or none but he ”这样的短语是不符合文法规则的。but可以接不带“to”的不定式：例如，“He does nothing but [to] sleep .” -------------------------------------------练习45-------------------------------------------- 纠正下列句子中违背规则十的错误： 1. Who did you vote for? 2. There is no one at home now besides mother, uncle, and I. 8. There were no marks to show who the sheep belonged to. 4. Let that remain a secret between you and I. 5. I bestow my favors on whoever I will. 6. Who you spend your evenings with is well known. 7. So you must ride On horseback after we. 8. The boy stood on the burning deck Whence all but he had fled. 9. The money is to be divided between the three brothers. 10. No one but he should be about the king. 7.2 连词的句法规则。 7.2.1 规则十一的内容。 规则十一 —— 连词连接词，短语，或者主题(完整主题的句子) ：例如—— (1) Oxygen and hydrogen are called gases. (2) He strove with all his powers AND to a noble end. (3) [The sun shines] BECAUSE [the sky is clear]. 对于连词的连接功能 ， 有两个例外 ： (1) 连词 that 有时候仅用于引导一个作为句子主语的从句：例如， “ That you have wronged me doth appear in this.” 但是 ， 这仅仅是省略和倒置的一种情况 ， 这个结构相当于 ，“ It doth appear in this that you have wronged me.” (2) 在具有相互关系连词的结构中，先行词或引导连词只有极少数能说成是连接，连接能力属于是后半部分的连词。在解析的时候，称呼对应连接对的第一部分为“引导关联连词”( introductory correlative conjunction )是比较恰当的。 -------------------------------------------练习46------------------------------------------- 在下列句子中应用规则十一： 1. Lightly and brightly breaks away The morning from her mantle gray.— Byron . 2. Right sharp and quick the bells all night Rang out from Bristol town.— Macaulay . 3. Men must work and women must weep, Though storms be hidden and waters weep.— KingBley . 4. A wise man will make haste to forgive, because he knows the true value of time, and will not suffer it to pass away in unnecessary pain.— Johnson . 5. These wave their town flag in the arched gateway; and stand, rolling their drum; but to no purpose.— Carlyle . 6. For none made sweeter melody Than did the poor blind boy.—Wordsworth. 7. Whether the thing was green or blue. — Colman . 8. No leave ask'st thou of either wind or tide.— Joanna Baillie . 9. Whether be was combined With those of Norway; or did line the rebel With hidden help and vantage; or that with both He labor'd in his country's wrack, I know not.— Shakespeare . 10. This, I think, I may at least say, that we should have a great many fewer disputes in the world, If words were taken for what they are, the signs of our ideas only, and not for things themselves.— Locke . 7.2.2 应用规则十一。 7.2.2.1. 在规则十一下的特别规则。 (1) 特别规则一 。—— 一些连词后面接了相对应的连词 ； 在一对相互关联的连词中，先行词与其后面部分应当对应 。 a. though要求使用yet :例如—— Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull. b. whether要求使用or :例如—— Whether the thing was green or blue. c. either要求使用or :例如—— None of them either returned his gaze or seemed to notice it. d. neither要求使用nor :例如—— Neither in France nor in Spain does this custom exist. 注意 。——either…or和neither…nor，严格地说，表达了一个折衷的含义，或者两者之间的选择的含义；在现代时期，表达准确的作家非常细心，不会使用这些相互关联的连词对来连接超过两个项的情况。 e. both要求使用and :例如—— Power to judge both quick and dead. f. as…as用于肯定比较 :例如—— Mine is as good as yours. g. so…as用于否定比较 :例如—— But his is not so good as either. 或者表达一个限制范围的比较： Be so good as to read this letter. (2) 特别规则二 。—— 有两个项，一个要求使用than，而另一个要求使用as，当他们被连接起来的时候，不要试图只使用其中的一个连词来连接组成表示双重关系的句子： 例如—— a. He was more beloved but not so much admired as Cynthio. 在这个句子中，两个项“more beloved”和“so much admired”被连接起来，两项的双重连词由连接as表示。但是，一个比较级， 例如“more beloved”，后面要求接than(因为我们不能说“more beloved as Cynthio”)，在这种情况下，这个结构一定要改成引入恰当的连词。例如—— He was more beloved than Cynthio, but not so much admired. b. I would do as much or more work than John. 纠正：连词than被用于表示相互关联连词“as much”和“more”，但是，“as much”要求使用连接“as”，正确的用法如下： I would do as much work as John, or more [than he]. (3) 特别规则三 。—— 必须注意，使用连词，要适合表达连接的意图。 I. 在隐含 doubt ， fear， 或者 denial 含义的表达式之后 ，that 应当用于替换 lest,but,but what,but what：例如—— I do not doubt that [not but that or but what ] he is honest. II. 在 else,other,rather 以及所有比较级之后 ， 比较级后面的项应当使用 than 来引导 ， 而不是 but,besides, 或 except 来引导 ：例如—— He no sooner retires but [should be than ] his heart burns with devotion. III. than 经常不恰当地用作前置词 ：例如—— a. That is a very different statement than what [should be from what ] you made yesterday. b. I should prefer being right than being President [should be to being ]. 7.2.2.2. 关于连词句法的特性和习惯用法。 I. 连词的修辞。——连词的省略常常给叙事增加活力： 例如—— Through many a dark and dreary vale They passed, and many a region dolorous; O'er many a frozen, many a fiery Alp, Rocks, caves, lakes, fens，bogs, dens，and shades of death 一 A universe of death .— Milton . 另一方面，连词重复的修辞手法，又用于强调细节 ：例如—— Scasons return; but not to me returns Day, or the sweet approach of even or morn, Or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose, Or flock, or herds, or human face divlne.— Milton . 在诗歌用法中， and…and 通常表示 both…and；or…or 通常表示 either…or；nor…nor 通常表示 neither…nor：例如—— a. And tramp and timbrel answered them.— Scott . b. I whom nor avarice nor plesures move.— Walsh ． II. than——“than whom”。——than后面的名词或代词的格，取决于后面从句的结构(通常省略掉 which , however )： 例如—— a. I esteem yon more than they [esteem you]. b. I esteem you more than them [=than I esteem them]. 一种特别的结构 ，than whom， 用下面的示例说明 ： a. Beelzebub, than whom ,Satan except, none higher sat. — Milton . b. Pope, than whom few men had more vauity.— Johnson . 如果我们替换掉人称代词，我们应该注意到，句子需要主格。例如，“None sat higher than he ;”“ had more vanity than he .” 因此，必须将这种结构视为不规则结构；但是，这种结构已经被众多卓越的作家采用，我们很难拒绝接受它 ( 在语言中 ， 正所谓 “ 存在即合理吧 ”)。 可能是后接离格 (ablative)quo 的拉丁语比较级与英语习语混淆不清的结果 。“ 在拉丁语中 ， 离格 quo 表示 ‘than who’，‘than’ 由离格表述出来 ”。 用英语写作的资深学者已经提出了 than， 然而 ， 由于他们的大脑受拉丁语语法的影响 ， 这种混淆用法(宾格)已经根深蒂固(注： Rushton,<>，104页。Dr. Priestley似乎已经有了这样一个概念，即，这种情况的than是一个前置词，而Abbott先生(<>，210页)说，应该将它看成是一个“准前置词”(quasi-preposition)，但是，这对于解释这种结构没有帮助，事实上，这种结构确实已经习语化了。 )。 -------------------------------------------练习47-------------------------------------------- 在下列句子中纠正违背规则十一的错误： 1. Neither despise or oppose what you do not understand. 2. He is more bold but not so wise as his companion. 3. Will it be urged that the four Gospels are as old or even older than tradition? 4. As far as I am able to judge, the book is well written. 5. Sincerity is as valuable, and even more so, as knowledge. 6. These rules should be kept in mind as aids either for speaking, composing, or parsing correctly. 7. No one gave his opinion so modestly as he. 8. I do not deny but he has merit. 9. We expected something more besides this. 10. Was the singing any different to-night than usual?
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2. 谓语关系 2.1 规则二——动词与主语的人称和数呈一致性关系。 注意事项：这个规则的逻辑必要性可以这样阐述：在任何一个句子中，动词及其主语都谈论的是同一件事。因此，它们在通用的文法格式上必须互相一致，不然，它们在术语上就会产生冲突。这儿，名词或代词的通用文法格式就是人称和数。事实上，英语中的动词拥有少量的词尾变化，用可见标识标明人称和数的 一致性( conformity ) 的情况仅限于很少的一部分；不管怎么说，逻辑上的一致性必须遵从主语和动词通用关系的预期。 -------------------------------------------练习28--------------------------------------------------- 在下列句子中运用规则二( 以第1个句子为例：“ Hath reared， 第三人称单数动词， 按照规则二，与其主语 Hand 一致；didst weave，第二人称单数动词，按照规则二，与其主语 thou 一致。” )： 1. Father, thy hand Hath reared these venerable columns; thou Didst weave this verdant roof.— Bryant . (thy=your；hath=have的第三人称单数当前时态；thou=you，旧时的第二人称单数；在陈述语气的当前时态和过去时态中，动词的第二人称单数为Est(或st)(庄严的场合和诗歌风格)，因此Didst=Did。下同) 2 . You say you are a better soldier. 一 Shakespeare . 3 . Then ye are only five. — Wordsworth . 4 . Pleasantly rose next morning the sun on the village of Grand-Pré.— Longfellow . 5 . One morn a Perit at the gate of heaven stood disconsolate.— Moore . 6 . Where De Soto was buried cannot be determined. 一 Bancroft . 7 . A little learning is a dangerous thing; Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring.— Pope. 8 . He prayeth best who loveth best All things both great and small ; For the dear God who loveth us, He made and loveth all.— Coleridge . 9 . The Accusing Spirit, which flew up to heaven's chancery with the oath,blushed as he gave it in; and the Recording Angel, as he wrote it down,dropped a tear upon the word, and blotted it out forever.— Sterne . 10 . We know that if we could cause this structure to ascend, not only till it reached the skies, but till it pierced them, its broad surfaces could still contain but part of that which, in an age of knowledge, hath already been spread over the earth, and which history charges itself with making known to all future times.— Daniel Webster. 11 . Then methought the air grew denser, perfumed from an unseen censer Swung by Seraphim whose footfalls tinkled on the tufted floor. "Wretch," I cried, "thy God hath lent thee一by these angels he hath sent thee Respite—respite and nepenthe from thy memories of Lenore! Quaff, oh quaff this kind nepenthe and forget this lost Lenore!" Quoth the raven一Nevermore !''— Poe . 2.2应用规则二 I. 违背规则二的典型情况 (1) 第一种情况。——当使动词一致时，并没有使其与真正的主语一致，而是错误地当成与修饰词或短语一致：例如—— His reputation was great，and somewhat more durable than that of similar poets have generally been. 纠正：动词“have”的复数格式用成单数主语“that”的动词，应该是“ has generally been”，错误的原因是，动词“have”被“诱导”(attracted)成与复数“poets”一样的数；但是，因为句子“of similar poets”仅仅是“that”的附加语，它对动词的数没有任何影响。 因此， 有注意事项一：主语的附加语并不影响动词的数。 (2) 第二种情况。——错误地理解了作为主语的关系代词的数：例如—— This is one of the most valuable books that has appeared in any language. 纠正：动词has应当与主语即关系代词“that”一致；这里，“that”是复数，因为它的先行词“books”是复数；因此，它应当是“that have appeared。” 因此，有注意事项二：当动词的主语是关系代词的时候，它的先行词决定上了动词的数。 (3) 第三种情况。——不恰当地省略了动词。例如—— A bundle of papers was produced,and such particulars as the following detailed. 这是分词“detailed”前的辅助动词的省略，但是这种省略是不恰当的，依据前面已经提供的“was”(“produced”前面的表述)，“and”后面我们有类似“such particulars was detailed”这样的句子，当然，应当补上的辅助动词是“were”(而不是“was”)。 因此，有注意事项三：通常，不允许省略动词， 如果允许省略动词，会引起与主语的不一致。 II. 在规则二下的特别规则 (1) 特别规则一。——两个及以上单数格式的主语通过and连接，且传达出复数的概念，则要求使用动词的复数格式。例如—— “ Mars and Jupiter have been visible this week .” a. 人称。——按照特别规则一，有两个及以上用and连接起来的不同的人称作主语的动词以复数格式呈现。至于用于修饰动词属性的人称，用以下方法判定： a1. 如果主语之一是第一人称，则动词解析为第一人称复数：“ He and I (=we) are to go. ” a2. 如果主语之一是第二人称(句中没有第一人称用于主语时)，动词解析为第二人称复数：“ You and James are [第二人称复数] to go. ” b. 双主语单数。——下面是双主语单数的例子，其传达出的概念不是复数，而是单元，则这种情况，动词以单数格式呈现。 b1. 两个及以上名词分配到一个个体：例如—— A eminent sholar and judicious critic has said.(一位著名的学者和明智的评论家说过。) 即，“ sholar ”和“ critic ”都是指一个个体。 b2. 两个及以上名词是同义词，或者近义词：例如—— Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings. (doth，动词do的旧式第三人称单数形式。) 那里坐着国王的恐惧和敬畏。 b3. 两个及以上名词通过限定词each，every或no隔开：例如—— b3-1 . Each day and each hour brings its own duties. b3-2 Every limb and every feature appears with its appropriate grace. b3-3 . No book and no paper was arranged. b4. 用两个名词表示单个复合对象：例如—— The wheel and axle was out of repair=the wheel together with the axle. 车轮和车轴年久失修。 b5. 两个名词中的一个被动词not排除在外：例如—— Our own heart，and not other men’s opinions, forms our true honor. 我们真正的荣誉是我们自己的心，而不是别人的看法。 在这种句子结构中，隐含的是两个主题，即，“ Our own heart forms our true honor ”和“ Other men’s opinions do not forms our true honor ”，这个动词与肯定主题的主语一致，且与另一个主题一起理解。 (2) 特别规则二。——两个及以上单数格式的主语通过nor或者or分开，则要求使用动词的单数格式。例如—— “He or his brother has the book.” “Neither this nor that is the thing wanted.” 如果主语之一是复数，则复数主语必须置于紧靠动词的位置，且此动词也必须是复数；例如， “Neither the emperor nor his generals were convinced.”(皇帝和他的将军们都不相信。) (3) 特别规则三。——一个动词有两个及以上通过nor或者or连接起来的不同人称的主语，则动词与最靠近它的那个主语一致，并且在人称和数方面必须与句子的其余部分一起理解。例如—— a. Either he or I am to blame. b. You or Thomas is mistaken. c. Neither Jane nor you study . 注意：上面给出的示例并不是最好的用法，通常更可取的做法是，要么，将动词与第一个主语放在一起，第二个主语以合适的形式重复这个动词，要么，就改变句子结构。例如： a. Either he is to blame or I am . b. You are mistaken or Thomas is . c. Jane does not study，nor do you. (4) 特别规则四。——一个动词有两个不同人称的主语，一个是肯定格式，一个是否定格式，则在人称和数方面与肯定主语一致。例如， a. He，and not I， is chosen. b. I，and not they， am to go. (5) 特别规则五。——一个集合名词(联合的概念为主)采用单数动词。例如， “T he army was victorious. ” 群体名词(复数概念为主)采用复数动词。例如， “T he public are often deceived by false appearances. ”( 公众常被假象所欺骗 。) (关于集合名词和群体名词，见名词章节部分。对于集合名词和群体名词，对语言使用提出的规则是有缺陷的，最好的作家，他们之间的用法也相互矛盾。) 错误示范1： The fleet are under orders to set sail. (舰队奉命起航。) 纠正：集合名词“fleet”要求使用单数动词；但是are是复数。因此，应当是，“The fleet is under orders…”。 错误示范2： The peasantry goes bearfoot. (农民们徒步前进。) 纠正：名词“peasantry”是群体名词，要求使用复数动词；但是are是复数。因此，应当是，“The peasantry go… ”。 (6) 特别规则六。——应用于单个对象的复数标题采用单数动词。例如—— a. Johnson’s “Lives of the poets” is an admirable work . b. The United States occupies the largest part of North America. (对于“United States”，尽管在组成上，它可以使用复数代词them，their(修正)表示，但是目前最好的使用规则，就是遵从规则六。) (7) 特别规则七。——当任何句中隐含有一个及以上名词被省略掉的时候，动词采用复数。例如—— a. The second and the third Epistle of John contain each a single chapter. (John的第二和第三书信体诗文各包含一个章节。) b. A literary，a scientific，a wealthy and a poor man are to take part in the meeting.(即，A literary man, a scientific man，等等。) 这样的情况，句中隐含省略掉了名词，应当解析为几个名词通过and连接起来构成主语，动词以复数呈现。 (8) 特别规则八。——每一个限定动词都必须有一个可表达或可以理解得通的主语。 当两个及以上动词以同样的结构通过and连接的时候，可以允许主语省略：例如，“ James reads and [James] writes .”但是，当主语不是隐含的时候，或者当动词不是以同样的结构相连的时候，每个动词都应当有它自己的主语。例如—— It is thinking makes what we read ours. 纠正：限定动词“makes”没有主语，要么可表达，要么容易理解，应当提供关系代词that. III. 关于特性和习惯用法格式注意事项 (1) None—any—all。——不确定代词none，any，all，such，等等，采用单数或复数，取决于其表示的概念是联合体的概念还是复数的概念。例如—— a. None [=no one] but the brave deserves the fair. b. None of my friends were at home=all my friends were not-at-home. c. All [=everything] is peacefull and still . d. All [ persons ] fear , none [= no persons ] aid you,and few [ persons ] understand . (2) 主语+动词+谓语主格。——当“to be”动词表征的是主语主格和谓语主格的时候，例如，句子“The wages of sin is death”，可能会疑惑于是什么决定了动词的数，因为句子词序有时候可以调换过来，而句子原意保持不变。其原则是，判断那一个才是真正的主语，并使得动词在人称和数方面与其一致，尽管其它的名词主格在词序上占据主语的位置，都应将它们解析为谓语主格。 (3) 折分开的主语。——当一个动词将其主语拆分开的时候，动词在数方面与第一个主语一致，但应将其余部分放在一起理解。例如—— The earch is the Lord’s，and the fullness thereof. (大地及其囊括万物都是主的。) 这个句子，乍一看好像违背特别规则一；但是英语允许有这样的习惯用法。在解析的时候，应理解为将动词补充在语法上原本的位置。 (4) 诗歌的破格(或称诗歌的特许)(Poetic License)。——在诗歌中，经常有违背注意事项三的语句，即违背这条：当一个动词省略掉的时候，可能引起与其主语不一致，这种情况不允许省略动词。例如—— Ah! then and there was hurring to and fro， And [there were ] gathering tears and [there were ] tremblings of distress， And [there were ] cheeks all pale，which but an hour ago Blushed at the praise of their own loveliness.— Byron . 应补充上可以理解得通的正确的动词格式，再来解析句子。尽管诗歌破格允许这样的结构，但是在一般的散文中是不允许这样写的。 (5) 双主语。——在散文中，同时使用一个名词和代表人称的代词作为同一个动词的主语是不合适的，除非存在同位语。但是，在诗歌中，这种不规则的情况随处可见。例如—— a . The Count ， he was left to the vulture and hound. b . For the deck ， it was their field of fame . -------------------------------------------练习29--------------------------------------------------- 在下列句子中纠正违反规则二的句子。 违反通用规则。 1 . What have become of our friends? 2 . The Normans, under which general term is comprehended the Danes, Norwegians, and Swedes, were accustomed to rapine and pillage. 8 . I came to see you because I knew you was my old master. 4. Our cousin's kind and even temper endear her to all. 5. What signifies fair words without good deeds? 6. Neither of the parties are much better. 7 . There was no data given. 违反注意事项1-3。 1 . The fragrant woodbine and the sweet-scented myrtle renders the air in this spot truly delicious. 2. My trusty counsellor and friend have warned me to have no dealings with such men. 3. How pale each worshipful and reverend guest Rise from a clergy or a city feast! 4. Every house-top and every steeple show the flag of tbc republic. 5. To read and write were once an honorary distinction. 6. Our will, and not our stars, make us what we are. 7. Bread and milk are excellent food for children. 8 . A word or an epithet paint a whole scene. 9 . Neither the captain nor the sailors was saved. 10. One or both of the boys is in the garden. 11 . No voice nor sound but their own echoes were beard in reply. 12 . Nor eye nor listening ear an object find. 13 . I, whom nor avarice nor pleasure move. 14. He or I is to go. 15 . I, or thou, or he, are the author of it. 违反特别规则IV-VIII。 1 . Not you, but Mary, are the best scholar. 2 . The club meet on Tuesday. 3 . Congress have adjourned. 4 . A herd of cattle peacefully grazing afford a pleasing sight. 5 . The assembly thus convened were numerous. 6. Mankind was not united bf the bonds of civil society. 7 . Campbell's Plesures of Hope were sold for fifty cents. 8 . Silver·thread among the Gold arc a hackneyed song. 9 . The rising and the falling inflection is to be carefully distinguished. 10 . A Webster's and a Worcester's dictionary was consulted. 11 . It is a long road has no turning. 12. Our friend brought two loads to market, and were sold at good price. 13. This is an idiom to which our language is strongly inclined and was formerly very prevalent.
